Individual reflective assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Individual intelligent appraisal - Essay Example numerous abilities and the module ‘Academic Skills for Accountancy’ has helped me a great deal in building up a portion of the aptitudes required for the calling of evaluating. Following are abilities identified with bookkeeping that I have created all through the module. One of the most significant aptitudes for an evaluator is to have the option to fundamentally assess the review proof got because of the review techniques which incorporate requests from the administration, perception of the methodology done by the executives and examination of bookkeeping records. Through this semester, I have built up this ability altogether. The course has acquainted me with points of interest of the abilities required for basic assessment of proof. For the anticipated year, I intend to build up this expertise by leading further research on the review and by considering commonsense models in regards to reviews of huge substances. One of the most significant regions that would be engaged would be of expert suspicion. Proficient doubt is the capacity of an evaluator to keep a scrutinizing brain and this demeanor encourages the reviewer not to sum up the aftereffects of the assessment of proof got. I would figure out how to create proficient incredulity. A capacity each bookkeeper must have is the capacity to examine the data furnished and to make determinations with adequate justification. A similar ability is additionally significant for an evaluator since it is the obligation of a reviewer to break down the proof got and to give a sensible confirmation upheld by legitimized ends. The semester helped me fundamentally in improving this capacity (Cottrell 2008). In bookkeeping, every exchange has a double impact accordingly if any one piece of the exchange isn't recorded, it tends to be followed from the other part. Along these lines, everything in the budgetary records gets connected and the missing connections can be found by breaking down the recorded data. A similar expertise is likewise profoundly significant for the calling of evaluating. Since this is

History of Kitchen Appliance Inventions

History of Kitchen Appliance Inventions By definition, the kitchen is a room utilized for food readiness that is regularly outfitted with an oven, a sink for cleaning food and dish-washing, and cupboards and coolers for putting away food and hardware. Kitchens have been around for a considerable length of time, nonetheless, it was not until post-common war period that most of kitchen machines were designed. The explanation was that a great many people no longer had hirelings and housewives working alone in the kitchen required culinary assistance. The approach of ​electricity extraordinarily propelled the innovation of work sparing kitchen apparatuses. History of Large Kitchen Appliances Dishwasher: In 1850, Joel Houghton licensed a wooden machine with a hand-turned wheel that sprinkled water on dishes, it was not really a serviceable machine, however it was the first patent.Garbage Disposer: Architect, innovator John W. Hammes manufactured his significant other the universes first kitchen trash disposer in 1927. After 10â years of structure improvement, Hammes started a new business offering his machine to general society. His organization was known as the In-Sink-Erator Manufacturing Company.Ovens or Stoves: The first chronicled record of an oven alludes to a gadget worked in 1490 in Alsace, France.Microwave Ovens: The microwave was imagined by Percy L. Spencer.Refrigerator: Before mechanical refrigeration frameworks were presented, individuals cooled their food with ice and day off, discovered locally or brought down from the mountains. History of Small Kitchen Appliances Apple Parer: On February 14, 1803, the apple parer was licensed by Moses Coates.Blender: In 1922, Stephen Poplawski developed the blender.Cheese-Slicer: The cheddar slicer is a Norwegian invention.Corkscrews: Corkscrew designers were enlivened by an instrument called the bulletscrew or firearm worm, a gadget that extricated stuck projectiles from rifles.Cuisinart Food Processor: Carl Sontheimer concocted the Cuisinart food processor.Green Garbage Bags: The recognizable green plastic trash pack (produced using polyethylene) was imagined by Harry Wasylyk in 1950.Electric Kettle: Arthur Leslie Large created the electric pot in 1922. General Electric presented the electric pot with a programmed cut-out in 1930.Weber Kettle Grill: George Stephen developed the first Weber Kettle Grill in 1951.Mason Jar: John Mason protected the screw neck bottle or the Mason Jar on November 30, 1858.Electric Mixers: The first patent that can profess to be for an electric blender was giv en on November 17, 1885, to Rufus M. Eastman. Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972), the mother of 12 kids, additionally protected an electric food blender (sometime in the future). Mixmaster: Ivar Jepson developed Sunbeam Mixmaster, which he protected in 1928, and first mass-showcased in 1930.Paper Towels: The Scott Paper Company was established in Philadelphia by Irvin and Clarence Scott in 1879. Siblings Seymour and Irvin Scott maintained a paper commission business for a long time, however the poor economy during the 1870s constrained them bankrupt. Irvin and his more youthful sibling, Clarence, at that point chose to shape their own organization out of the remaining parts of the first. Irvin allegedly acquired $2,000 from his dad in-law and added it to the $300 the two siblings needed to shape the capital of Scott Paper Company. In 1907, Scott Paper presented the Sani-Towels paper towel, the main paper towels. They were designed for use in Philadelphia study halls to help forestall the spread of the basic cold from kid to child.Peelers: The nineteenth-century made various kitchen use creations: toasters, potato mashers, apple/potato peelers, food chop pers, and wiener stuffers were completely imagined. More than 185 licenses for espresso processors and more than 500 licenses for apple/potato peelers were protected during the 1800s. Early peelers were made of iron and the patent number and other data were remembered for the throwing. Peelers extended from the recognizable and basic round turning pole with a blade sharp edge that stripped skin, to contraptions loaded with apparatuses and wheels that could strip, center, cut, and area. There were independent peelers intended for various products of the soil; there were even peelers that expelled the portions from ears of corn. Weight Cooker: In 1679, French physicist Denis Papin imagined the weight cooker, called Papins Digester, this water/air proof cooker created hot steam that prepared food all the more rapidly while safeguarding nutrients.Saran Wrap: Saran polyvinylidene chloride or Saran pitches and movies (called PVDC) have been wrapping items for more than 50 years.Soap and Detergents: The historical backdrop of cleansers and cleansers as we probably am aware them today go back to the 1800s.Squeegee: The single-cutting edge window cleaning squeegee was designed by Ettore Sceccone in 1936.Toaster: Toasting bread started as a strategy for dragging out the life of bread. It was a typical action in Roman occasions, tostum is the Latin word for searing or burning.Tupperware: Tupperware, plastic compartments with water/air proof tops, was created by Earl Silas Tupper.Waffle Iron: The waffle iron was protected on August 24, 1869, developed by Cornelius Swarthout of Troy, New York. The patent depicted the development as a gadget to heat waffles.

G?m? Th??ry 101 D?finiti?n, Ex?l?in?d, Ex?m?l??

G?m? Th??ry 101 D?finiti?n, Ex?l?in?d, Ex?m?l?? Ev?r? ?hild understands wh?t g?m?? ?r?. Wh?n ??m??n? ?v?rr???t?, we sometimes say “it’? ju?t a g?m?.”Games ?r? ?ft?n not ??ri?u?. G?m?? theories ?n th? other h?nd are mu?h different. They ?r? u?u?ll? ??ri?u? business.Th? ?ur???? of game theory fr?m it? b?ginning? in 1928 w?? t? be ???li?d to serious situations in ???n?mi??, politics, bu?in???, ?nd ?th?r areas.Ev?n w?r? ??n b? analysed by g?m? theory. G?m? th??r? i? u?u?ll? ???n ?? a m?th?m?ti??l g?m? where ?v?r? m?v? i? calculated ??r?full? in other to achieve th? ?x???t?d r??ult.HERE ARE SOME COMPONENTS OF A GAMERulesM?th?m?ti??l g?m?? h?v? ?tri?t rul??. Th?? specify wh?t i? allowed ?nd wh?t i?n’t.Th?ugh m?n? r??l-w?rld g?m?? ?ll?w for discovering n?w m?v?? ?r w??? to act, games th?t ??n b? analysed mathematically h?v? a rigid ??t ?f ????ibl? m?v??, u?u?ll? ?ll known in ?dv?n??.Outcomes ?nd payoffsChildr?n (?nd gr?wn-u?? too) play games f?r h?ur? for fun. M?th?m?ti??l g?m?? may h?v? many possible ?ut??m??, ???h ?r?du?ing pay offs f?r th? ?l???r?.Th? payoffs may b? m?n?t?r?, ?r th?? m?? express ??ti?f??ti?n. Y?u w?nt t? win the g?m?.Un??rt?int? ?f th? OutcomeA m?th?m?ti??l game i? “thrilling” in th?t its ?ut??m? ??nn?t b? predicted in ?dv?n??.Sin?? its rul?? are fix?d, this im?li?? th?t a g?m? must ?ith?r ??nt?in ??m? random ?l?m?nt? or h?v? m?r? than ?n? ?l???r.D??i?i?n makingA g?m? with n? decisions might be boring, at l???t f?r th? mind. Running a 100 m?t?r race d??? n?t r??uir? m?th?m?ti??l ?kill?, only fast l?g?.H?w?v?r, most ???rt g?m?? ?l?? inv?lv? decisions, and can therefore ?t l???t ??rtl? b? ?n?l?z?d by g?m? theory.N? ?h??tingIn r??l-lif? g?m?? ?h??ting i? ????ibl?. Ch??ting m??n? n?t ?l??ing by th? rul??.If, when ??ur ?h??? ????n?nt i? distracted, ??u t?k? ??ur ?u??n ?nd ?ut it on a b?tt?r ??u?r?, ??u are ?h??ting, as in ??k?r, wh?n you exchange ?n 8 in your h?nd with ?n ??? in your ?l??v?.G?m? theory doesn’t even ??kn?wl?dg? th? ?xi?t?n?? ?f ?h??ting.BASICS OF GAME THEORY: GAME, PLAY, MOVEA play i? an instance of th? game. In ??rt?in ?itu?ti?n?, called ???iti?n?, a ?l???r has d? m?k? a decision, ??ll?d a m?v? ?r an ??ti?n. Thi? i? not th? same ?? ?tr?t?g?. A ?tr?t?g? i? a ?l?n th?t tells th? player wh?t m?v? to choose in every ????ibl? ???iti?n.R?ti?n?l behaviour i? usually ???um?d for all ?l???r?. Th?t is, ?l???r? ?r? ???um?d to h?v? ?r?f?r?n???, styles ?nd beliefs ?b?ut th? w?rld ?nd then th?? tr? t? ?l?? th?ir game ?? th?? b??t ??? fit.It i? ???um?d th?t th? opposite play wants t? win and f?r th?t t? h????n, he h?? t? b? very rational with hi? ?r h?r b?h?vi?ur.M?r??v?r, ?l???r? ?r? ?w?r? that other players ?r? tr?ing t? ??timiz? th?ir payoffs ?nd beat th?m and thi? inf?rm? th?ir d??i?i?n m?king.First let’s get a ??r????tiv? of wh?t game th??r? is all aboutW?, humans cannot survive with?ut interacting with ?th?r hum?n?, and ir?ni??ll?, it sometimes ???m? th?t w? h?v? ?urviv?d despite th??? int?r??ti?n? in th? ??n?? th?t th??? int?r??ti?n? h?v? included w?r?, fighting, killing? ?t?.Pr?du?ti?n and exchange require cooperation b?tw??n individu?l? at ??m? l?v?l but th? same int?r??ti?n? m?? also lead to di???tr?u? confrontations. Hum?n hi?t?r? i? ?? mu?h a hi?t?r? of fight? ?nd w?r? ?? it i? a hi?t?r? ?f ?u?????ful ?????r?ti?n ?nd fri?nd?hi??.Many hum?n int?r??ti?n? carry the ??t?nti?l? of ?????r?ti?n ?nd h?rm?n? ?? w?ll ?? conflict, di?tru?t ?nd sometimes outright di???t?r.Ex?m?l?? in?lud?: r?l?ti?n?hi?? ?m?ng ??u?l??, ?ibling?, countries, m?n?g?m?nt ?nd labor uni?n?, n?ighb?r?, ?m?l???r ?nd ?m?l?????, and ?? on.On? ??n ?rgu? th?t th? in?r???ingl? ??m?l?x technologies, in?tituti?n?, ?nd ?ultur?l n?rm? that have ?xi?t?d in human ???i?ti?? have been there in ?rd?r t? facilitate ?nd r?gul?t? th??? int?r??ti?n?.F?r ?x?m?l?, internet t??hn?l?g? gr??tl? facilitates buyer-seller tr?n???ti?n?, but ?l?? ??m?li??t?? th?m furth?r by increasing ????rtuniti?? for ?h??ting ?nd fr?ud.Workers and managers h?v? usually opposing interests wh?n it ??m?? to w ?g?? ?nd working ??nditi?n?, ?nd labour uni?n? ?? w?ll ?? l?b?ur l?w? ?r?vid? ?h?nn?l? ?nd rul?? through which ?n? potential ??nfli?t between them can be ?ddr????d.T?n?’? ???id?ntWh?n ?n? of us (Steve) w?? a ??ll?g? ?tud?nt, hi? fri?nd T?n? ??u??d a minor traffic ???id?nt. W?’ll l?t him t?ll th? ?t?r?:The car ?f th? vi?tim, wh?m I’ll ??ll Vic, w?? slightly scraped. T?n? didn’t w?nt t? t?ll hi? in?ur?n?? company. The n?xt m?rning, T?n? ?nd I w?nt with Vi? t? vi?it ??m? b?d? shops. Th? u??h?t was th?t th? r???ir w?uld ???t $80.Tony ?nd I had lunch with a bottle of wine, ?nd thought ?v?r th? ?itu?ti?n. Vic’s ??r was far fr?m new ?nd h?d ???umul?t?d m?n? ??r????. R???iring the f?w th?t T?n? h?d caused w?uld improve th? ??r’? ?????r?n?? ?nl? a littl?.W? figur?d that if Tony ??nt Vi? a ?h??k f?r $80, Vi? w?uld ?r?b?bl? ju?t ???k?t it. Perhaps, we thought, Tony ?h?uld ??k t? see a receipt ?h?wing th?t th? r???ir? h?d ??tu?ll? b??n performed b?f?r? he ??nt Vi? the $80.A g?m? th? ?ri?t w?uld represent thi? ?itu?ti?n b? a game tr??. For definiteness, w?’ll ???um? that th? v?lu? to Vic ?f r???iring th? d?m?g? is $20.Explanation ?f th? game tree:T?n? goes first. H? h?? a ?h?i?? of two ??ti?n?: send Vic a ?h??k f?r $80, or d?m?nd a r???i?t ?r?ving that th? work h?? b??n d?n?.If T?n? sends a check, th? g?m? ?nd?. Tony i? ?ut $80; Vi? will no doubt k??? the m?n??, so he h?? g?in?d $80. W? r??r???nt th??? ????ff? b? th? ?rd?r?d ??ir (-80, 80); the fir?t numb?r i? Tony’s ????ff, the ????nd i? Vi?’?.If T?n? d?m?nd? a r???i?t, Vi? has a ?h?i?? ?f two ??ti?n?: r???ir the ??r and send T?n? th? r???i?t, ?r just forget th? wh?l? thing.If Vi? r???ir? th? car ?nd ??nd? T?n? th? r???i?t, th? g?m? ?nd?. T?n? ??nd? Vi? a ?h??k f?r $80, so he i? ?ut $80; Vi? u??? th? check t? ??? for the r???ir, ?? his g?in is $20, the v?lu? ?f the r???ir.If Vi? decides to forget th? wh?l? thing, h? ?nd Tony each ?nd u? with a g?in ?f 0Assuming that we h?v? ??rr??tl? sized u? th? ?itu?ti? n, w? ??? th?t if Tony demands a receipt, Vi? will have to d??id? between tw? ??ti?n?, one th?t giv?? him a ????ff ?f $20 ?nd one that giv?? him a payoff ?f 0. Vic will ?r??um?bl? ?h???? t? repair th? ??r, which giv?? him a better payoff. T?n? will th?n b? ?ut $80.Our ??n?lu?i?n was th?t Tony w?? out $80 wh?t?v?r he did. We did n?t like thi? game.When th? bottle w?? n??rl? finished, w? th?ught ?f a third ??ur?? ?f ??ti?n th?t T?n? could t?k?: ??nd Vi? a check for $40, ?nd t?ll Vi? th?t h? would ??nd th? r??t when Vi? provided a r???i?t ?h?wing th?t th? w?rk h?d ??tu?ll? b??n d?n?. The game tr?? n?w l??k?d lik? this:Most ?f th? g?m? tr?? l??k? lik? th? fir?t ?n?. H?w?v?r:If Tony t?k?? hi? new ??ti?n, ??nding Vic a check f?r $40 ?nd asking f?r a receipt, Vi? will have a ?h?i?? ?f two ??ti?n?: repair the ??r, ?r don’t.If Vic r???ir? the ??r, th? game ?nd?. Vi? will ??nd Tony a r???i?t, ?nd T?n? will send Vi? a ????nd check f?r $40. Tony will b? ?ut $80. Vi? will use b?th ?h??k? to pa y for th? r???ir, ?? he will h?v? a n?t g?in ?f $20, the v?lu? ?f the r???ir.If Vi? d??? n?t repair the ??r, ?nd ju?t ???k?t? th? the $40, th? g?m? ends. T?n? i? ?ut $40, ?nd Vi? h?? g?in?d $40. Ag?in ???uming th?t w? have ??rr??tl? ?iz?d u? th? ?itu?ti?n, w? ??? th?t if T?n? sends Vi? a check f?r $40 and asks f?r a r???i?t, Vic’s best ??ur?? ?f action i? t? keep th? m?n?? ?nd n?t m?k? th? repair. Thu? T?n? is ?ut only $40.T?n? ??nt Vic a ?h??k for $40, t?ld him h?’d ??nd th? r??t when he saw a receipt, ?nd n?v?r h??rd from Vi? ?g?in.E??n?mi??, sociology, ????h?l?g?, ?nd ??liti??l ??i?n?? ?r? ?ll d?v?t?d to studying hum?n b?h?vi?ur in different realms of social life.H?w?v?r, in m?n? in?t?n??? th?? tr??t individu?l? in i??l?ti?n, f?r convenience if n?t f?r ?n?thing ?l??. In ?th?r w?rd?, th?? ???um? th?t to understand ?n? individual’s b?h?vi?r.It i? safe to ???um? that his or her b?h?vi?r d??? not h?v? a significant ?ff??t ?n ?th?r individu?l?. In some cases, and d???nding u??n th? ?u??ti?n ?n? i? ??king, this assumption m?? b? w?rr?nt?d.For ?x?m?l?, wh?t a small f?rm?r in a l???l market, l?t’? ??? in M?nt?n?, ?h?rg?? for wheat i? n?t likely t? have ?n effect on the w?rld wh??t prices.Simil?rl?, th? probability th?t m? vote will ?h?ng? th? ?ut??m? ?f th? U.S. presidential ?l??ti?n? is n?gligibl? small.So, if we ?r? interested in the w?rld wh??t ?ri?? or th? r??ult ?f th? ?r??id?nti?l ?l??ti?n?, w? m?? ??f?l? ???um? th?t ?n? individu?l ??t? ?r b?h?vi?r will n?t ?ff??t th? outcome.In many cases, however, thi? ???um?ti?n m?? l??d to wrong ??n?lu?i?n?. F?r ?x?m?l?, h?w mu?h ?ur f?rm?r in M?nt?n? ?h?rg??, ??m??r?d t? th? ?th?r f?rm?r? in Montana, ??rt?inl? ?ff??t? h?w mu?h h? ?r ?h? and other f?rm?r? make. If ?ur f?rm?r ??t? a ?ri?? that i? l?w?r th?n th? prices set by th? ?th?r f?rm?r? in th? local m?rk?t, ?h? w?uld ??ll m?r? than th? others, and vi?? versa.Th?r?f?r?, if we ???um? th?t they d?t?rmin? th?ir prices with?ut t?king thi? ?ff??t int? ????unt, w? a re not lik?l? to get ?n?wh?r? n??r und?r?t?nding their b?h?vi?r.Simil?rl?, the v?t? of ?n? individual m?? r?di??ll? ?h?ng? the ?ut??m? ?f voting in ?m?ll ??mmitt??? and ???uming th?t they v?t? in ign?r?n?? ?f th?t f??t i? likely t? be mi?l??ding.Aft?r ?ll, ?v?n ?du??t?d ??n?t?r? ??m?tim?? turn their votes b???d on ?n? ??r??n’? idea.S? what i? g?m? th??r??Game th??r? i? ?x??tl? th??? interactions within a gr?u? of individuals (?r g?v?rnm?nt?, firm?, ?t?.) wh?r? th? actions ?f ???h individual have ?n ?ff??t on th? ?ut??m? th?t i? of interest t? everybody.Yet, thi? is n?t ?n?ugh f?r a ?itu?ti?n t? be a ?r???r ?ubj??t ?f game th??r?: th? w?? th?t individu?l? act has to be ?tr?t?gi?, i.?., they ?h?uld b? ?w?r? ?f the f??t th?t th?ir ??ti?n? ?ff??t others.Th? fact th?t m? ??ti?n? h?v? ?n ?ff??t on th? ?ut??m? does n?t n??????ril? translate t? strategic b?h?vi?ur if I ?m n?t aware ?f th?t f??t. Therefore, w? say th?t game th??r? ?tudi?? strategic int?r??ti?n within a group of individuals .B? strategic int?r??ti?n w? m??n th?t individu?l? kn?w th?t th?ir ??ti?n? will have an ?ff??t on th? ?ut??m? and th?n ??t? accordingly. It b??i??ll? m??n? acting in such a w?? t? m?ni?ul?t? ?n ?ut??m? in ??ur favour. Look ?t th? ?x?m?l? ?b?v?â€"“J?hn’? ???id?nt”Having determined the t???? ?f situations th?t g?m? th??r? d??l? with, w? h?v? to now di??u?? h?w it ?n?l???? these ?itu?ti?n?.Like ?n? ?th?r th??r?, the objective ?f g?m? th??r? i? t? ?rg?niz? ?ur knowledge ?nd in?r???? ?ur understanding of th? outside w?rld.A scientific th??r? tri?? t? abstract th? m??t ????nti?l aspects ?f a giv?n ?itu?ti?n, analyze them using ??rt?in ???um?ti?n? ?nd ?r???dur??, and ?t th? end derive ??m? g?n?r?l ?rin?i?l?? and ?r?di?ti?n? th?t can b? ???li?d to individual in?t?n???.F?r it to h?v? ?n? ?r?di?tiv? ??w?r, game theory has t? assume some rules according t? whi?h individu?l? m?? ??t. If w? d? n?t d???rib? how individu?l? behave, what th?ir ?bj??tiv?? ?r? ?nd h?w they tr? to ??hi?v? th??? ?bj??tiv?? w? ??nn?t derive ?n? ?r?di?ti?n? at ?ll in a giv?n ?itu?ti?n.F?r example, ?n? w?uld get ??m?l?t?l? diff?r?nt ?r?di?ti?n? r?g?rding th? ?ri?? of wh??t in a local m?rk?t if one ???um?? th?t farmers simply flip a ??in and ?h???? b?tw??n $1 ?nd $2 a pound ??m??r?d t? if ?n? assumes they tr? t? m?k? as mu?h m?n?? ?? ????ibl?.Therefore, t? bring ??m? discipline t? th? ?n?l??i? ?n? has t? intr?du?? ??m? ?tru?tur? in terms of th? rules ?f the game. Th? most important, and m??b? ?n? of th? m??t controversial, assumption ?f game theory whi?h brings ?b?ut this di??i?lin? i? th?t individuals ?r? rational.Rationality im?li?? that individu?l? know the strategies ?v?il?bl? t? ???h ?f th?m, h?v? ??m?l?t? and ??n?i?t?nt ?r?f?r?n??? over ????ibl? outcomes, ?nd th?? ?r? ?w?r? ?f th??? ?r?f?r?n???.Furth?rm?r?, they ??n determine the b??t strategy f?r themselves ?nd flawlessly im?l?m?nt it.If t?k?n literally, th? ???um?ti?n of rationality i? ??rt?inl? ?n unr??li?ti? ?n?, ?nd if applied to ??r ti?ul?r ????? it m?? ?r?du?? r??ult? that are ?t ?dd? with r??lit?. We ?h?uld fir?t note th?t game th??ri?t? ?r? ?w?r? of th? limit?ti?n? im????d b? this ???um?ti?n ?nd th?r? is ?n active r????r?h area ?tud?ing th? implications ?f l??? d?m?nding f?rm? ?f rationality, ??ll?d bounded r?ti?n?lit?.It i? n?t enough th?t I know th?t m? ??ti?n?, as w?ll ?? ??ur?, affect the outcome, but I mu?t ?l?? kn?w th?t you kn?w this fact. T?k? th? example ?f tw? wheat f?rm?r? b?th farmer A and B kn?w th?t their respective ?h?i??? of ?ri??? will ?ff??t their profits f?r the d??.But suppose, A d??? not kn?w that B kn?w? thi?.Now, from the ??r????tiv? of f?rm?r A, f?rm?r B i? ??m?l?t?l? ign?r?nt of what is g?ing ?n in th? market ?nd h?n?? f?rm?r B might ??t any ?ri??.Thi? makes f?rm?r A’? d??i?i?n quite difficult in itself because he h?? n? r?ti?n?l ground t? stand on to compete with f?rm?r B b???u?? f?rm?r B ??uld set ?n? price (he could set a ?ri?? lower than the ???t ?ri?? whi?h will m?k? it imposs ible f?r f?rm?r A t? compete).T? model th? ?itu?ti?n more r??li?ti??ll?, w? then have t? assume th?t th?? b?th kn?w th?t th?? kn?w th?t their prices will affect their ?r?fit?.On? ??tu?ll? h?? t? ??ntinu? in this f??hi?n ?nd assume th?t the rul?? ?f the game, in?luding h?w ??ti?n? ?ff??t th? ??rti?i??nt? ?nd individuals’ r?ti?n?lit?, ?r? ??mm?n kn?wl?dg?.A fact “X” i? common kn?wl?dg? if everybody knows it, if ?v?r?b?d? kn?w? that ?v?r?b?d? kn?w? it, if everybody kn?w? th?t ?v?r?b?d? kn?w? th?t ?v?r?b?d? kn?w? it, ?nd so on.Thi? has ??m? philosophical im?li??ti?n? ?nd is ?ubj??t t? a l?t ?f controversy, but f?r the m??t part w? will ?v?id th??? di??u??i?n? and take it as giv?n.In sum, we m?? define g?m? theory ?? f?ll?w?: Game th??r? i? a ???t?m?ti? study ?f ?tr?t?gi? interactions ?m?ng r?ti?n?l individu?l?.It? limit?ti?n? ??id?, game theory h?? b??n fruitfull? ???li?d to m?n? situations in th? r??lm ?f ???n?mi??, political ??i?n??, bi?l?g?, l?w, ?t?.In the rest ?f thi? ?rti?l? , w? will illu?tr?t? th? m?in ideas ?nd ??n???t? of g?m? th??r? ?nd ??m? ?f it? ???li??ti?n? using simple ?x?m?l??.An ?x?m?l?Su????? th?t B??ing ?nd Airbu? are asked t? ?ubmit ???l?d bid? on th? ?ri?? ?f t?n jet ?irlin?r? t? a f?r?ign n?ti?n?l ?irlin?. B?th ??m??ni?? d?ubt that th?? will ??m??t? in ?imil?r w??? in th? futur?. Both companies ??n ??l??t ?ith?r a high price ?r a l?w price.If ?n? ??m??n? bid? high and th? ?th?r bids l?w, the ?rd?r goes t? th? low bidder; if b?th ??m??ni?? submit th? same bid, they ??lit the order. E??h firm h?? the capacity t? build ?ll t?n ?ir?l?n??.B?th companies privately ?h???? their bids ?t th? ??m? tim?. Th? r??ulting ????ff? (profits ?x- pressed in milli?n? ?f dollars) d???nd ?n both firms’ choices.L?w ?ri??â€"100 milli?n each High ?ri??â€"150 million ???hCONCEPTS IN GAME THEORYDominant Str?t?gi?? A d?min?nt strategy ?xi?t? wh?n it i? optimal for a firm t? ?h???? th?t ?tr?t?g? n? m?tt?r what its rival d???. In the ?x?m?l? above, b?th firm? have a d?min?nt ?tr?t?g?â€"?h???? the l?w ?ri??.To illu?tr?t?, consider B??ing’? position. If Airbu? chooses a high ?ri??, B??ing ???tur?? th? entire ?rd?r b? submitting a l?w ?ri??. The resulting payoff of $1 billi?n is high?r th?n the payoff ?f $750 milli?n if both firm? ?ri?? high ?nd ??lit th? order.If Airbus ?h????? a l?w ?ri??, B??ing i? clearly b?tt?r ?ff t? ?ri?? l?w ?nd ??lit the order instead of l??ing ?ut entirely. It? alternative is t? ?ri?? high and sell n? ?l?n??.Examining the r?w?, the ??m? l?gi? h?ld? for Airbus. Giv?n th??? strong incentives, th? likely ?ut??m? is f?r b?th firms to ?ubmit a l?w ?ri??. N?t? th?t the firm? w?uld b? better ?ff if th?? j?intl? were t? ?ubmit high ?ri???. But thi? ?ut??m? i? unlikely with?ut r????t?d int?r??ti?n?. (Thi? ?r?bl?m h?? the same ?tru?tur? ?? th? well-known prisoners’ Dilemma)Nash Equilibrium M?n? ?f th? w?rld’? markets ?r? lik? the ??mm?r?i?l ?ir?r?ft industry in that th?r? ?r? a f?w l?rg? firms wh? ?r? th? m?j?r players. I n thi? type of market, it i? g?n?r?ll? important f?r m?n?g?r? t? consider riv?l?’ r????n??? wh?n making m?j?r decisions.Firms d? n?t always h?v? d?min?nt ?tr?t?gi??. For in?t?n??, suppose in ?ur ?x?m?l?, the U.S. g?v?rnm?nt ?l???? ?r???ur? ?n th? foreign ??untr? to have its n?ti?n?l ?irlin? purchase planes fr?mB??ing (governments ??tu?ll? have d?n? thi? for their d?m??ti? producers). Th? ?irlin? still ??lit? th? ?rd?r when the bid? are the ??m? ?nd awards B??ing th? entire ?rd?r if B??ing is th? low bidd?r. But du? t? this ??liti??l ?r???ur?, if B??ing bids high and l???? th? bid, the ?irlin? will bu? f?ur ?l?n?? fr?m B??ing ?t th? high ?ri?? on a ?id? deal ?ft?r purchasing the t?n ?l?n?? from Airbu? ?t the low ?ri??.Ch???ing a low price i? still a d?min?nt ?tr?t?g? for Airbus. Boeing, h?w?v?r, does not have a d?min?nt ?tr?t?g?. If Airbu? ?ri??? high, it i? ??tim?l f?r Boeing to ?ri?? l?w t? capture th? entire ?rd?r, wh?r??? if Airbu? ?ri??? l?w, it is b?tt?r for Boeing to price h igh ?nd make the side deal.When d?min?nt strategies d? not exist, th? ??n???t ?f a Nash equilibrium is useful in ?r?di?ting th? ?ut??m?. A Nash equilibrium i? a set ?f ?tr?t?gi?? (?r ??ti?n?) in whi?h each firm i? doing th? b??t it ??n, giv?n the ??ti?n? of it? rival.Th? ??mbin?ti?n ?f a l?w Airbu? ?ri?? ?nd a high Boeing price i? a Nash ??uilibrium. Neither firm w?uld w?nt t? ?h?ng? it? ?ri?? given the price ?ubmitt?d by th? ?th?r firmA ??rti?ul?r problem might have multiple Nash ??uilibri?Nash equilibria ?r? not n??????ril? th? ?ut??m?? th?t maximize the j?int payoff ?f the ?l???r?.F?r in?t?n??, fr?m th? ?x?m?l? ?b?v?, th? ?ut??m? where both firm? ?ubmit l?w prices i? a N??h ??uilibrium.Y?t b?th firms w?uld b? b?tt?r ?ff if th?? j?intl? ?ubmitt?d high prices.M?n?g?m?nt ImplicationsTh? ??w?r of a Nash equilibrium t? ?r?di?t the ?ut??m? in strategic ?itu?ti?n? ?t?m? fr?m the f??t th?t N??h ??uilibri? ?r? ??lf-?nf?r?ing: They are stable ?ut??m??. For instance, if Boeing can forecast Airbu?’? ?h?i?? (??rh??? b???u?? it und?r?t?nd? that Airbu? has a dominant ?tr?t?g?), it i? ??tim?l for Boeing t? choose it? ??uilibrium ??ti?n, a high ?ri??.And Airbus h?? n? in??ntiv? t? ?v?id its ??uilibrium choice, a l?w ?ri??. Thu?, ?v?n if b?th firms can forecast the outcome, neither firm h?? ?n in??ntiv? to ?h???? ?n? other ??ti?n.Alth?ugh th? id?? ?f a N??h ??uilibrium i? ?uit? useful, it is n?t ?? ??w?rful in ?r?di?ting the ?ut??m?? ?f strategic int?r??ti?n? ?? th? ??n???t of a dominant ?tr?t?g?. Wh?n dominant ?tr?t?gi?? exist, th?r? ?r? ?tr?ng ?riv?t? in??ntiv?? t? choose them r?g?rdl??? of wh?t th? ?th?r player d???.Thu?, it i? ?uit? predictable th?t riv?l? will ?h???? d?min?nt ?tr?t?gi??. With a Nash ??uilibrium, your best choice g?n?r?ll? i? ??nting?nt ?n wh?t you ?x???t ??ur rival t? do.In m?n? ????? it i? r????n?bl? to expect that a Nash ??uilibrium will occur. Thi? is more likely to b? true wh?n th? rivals have m?r? ?x??ri?n?? in similar ?tr?t?gi? ?r?bl?m?, h?v? b? tt?r inf?rm?ti?n ?b?ut ???h ?th?r, or wh?n the N??h equilibrium is what i? ??ll?d a n?tur?l f???l ??int.F?r example, ??n?id?r the ?r?bl?m again.If Boeing has r????n?bl? inf?rm?ti?n ?b?ut potential payoffs ?nd Airbu?’? l??k ?f ??liti??l ??w?r within th? specific country (it understands that th?r? is a close w?rking r?l?ti?n?hi? between th? l???l ?nd U.S. governments), it will r??liz? th?t Airbu? has a d?min?nt strategy t? ?ubmit a l?w ?ri??.B??ing ??rr????ndingl? will ?h???? a high priceâ€"the N??h equilibrium.Wh?n riv?l? kn?w littl? about th? setting ?r ???h ?th?r ?nd wh?n th?r? i? n?t a n?tur?l focal point, ?ut??m?? other than N??h equilibria (n?n-??uilibrium ?ut??m??) ?r? m?r? lik?l? t? ???ur.Str?t?g?It i? th? ?r?-d?t?rmin?d rul? b? whi?h ???h ?l???r decides hi? ??ur?? ?f action fr?m hi? li?t ?v?il?bl? t? him. How one course ?f action i? selected out of v?ri?u? ??ur??? ?v?il?bl? t? him i? known ?? ?tr?t?g? ?f the g?m?.T???? ?f Str?t?g?G?n?r?ll? tw? types ?f strategy ?r? ?m?l???d Pur? Str?t?g?: It i? th? predetermined ??ur?? ?f action to b? ?m?l???d by th? ?l???r. The ?l???r? kn?w it in ?dv?n??. It i? usually r??r???nt?d b? a numb?r with which the course ?f ??ti?n is ?????i?t?d.Mixed Str?t?g?: In mix?d ?tr?t?g? the ?l???r d??id?? hi? course ?f ??ti?n in accordance with some fix?d probability distribution. Pr?b?bilit? ?r? ?????i?t?d with ???h course ?f ??ti?n ?nd th? ??l??ti?n i? done ?? ??r th??? ?r?b?biliti??. In mix?d ?tr?t?g? th? ????n?nt ??nn?t be sure ?f th? ??ur?? ?f ??ti?n to be t?k?n ?n ?n? ??rti?ul?r ?????i?n.Decision ?f a G?m?In G?m? theory, best ?tr?t?g? for ???h ?l???r i? d?t?rmin?d ?n th? b??i? of ??m? rul?. Sin?? both th? ?l???r? ?r? ?x???t?d to b? rational in th?ir ???r???h this is known ?? th? ?rit?ri? ?f ??tim?lit?.Each player lists the ????ibl? ?ut??m?? fr?m hi? ??ti?n ?nd ??l??t? the b??t ??ti?n t? ??hi?v? hi? ?bj??tiv??.This criteria of ??tim?lit? is ?x?r????d ?? M?ximin f?r the m?ximi?ing ?l???r ?nd Minim?x f?r the minimi?ing player.Th? Prisoners Dil?mm? Th?r? ?r? m?n? situation in lif? wh?r? ??u ?h???? to do ??m?thing th?t is b??t f?r you, r?th?r than best f?r th? group, b???u?? ??u h?v? n? way ?f estimating h?w ??mmitt?d the ?th?r ????l? ?r? t?w?rd? th? gr?u? int?r??t?.Y?u kn?w that the ?ut??m? ?f being ??lfi?h can ??t?nti?ll? be b?d for ?v?r??n?, but ??u ?r?f?r th?t ?v?r??n? gets screwed r?th?r th?n b?ing the ?v?rl? ??n?id?r?t? gu? ?v?r??n? ??r?w?.F?r ?x?m?l?, if I h?v? no id?? if ??u are g?ing t? pay taxes, why w?uld i bother t? ??? t?x?? f?r th? new public swimming pool in whi?h you will di? your ?h????k?t? int??I would prefer th?t there b? n? swimming ???l ?t all th?n t? b? th? dumm? wh? pays f?r ?th?r ????l?? ?tuff.Suppose ?n th? ?th?r hand, th?r? ?r? ?l?nt? ?f l?w ?biding ?itiz?n? out th?r? ???ing t?x??, then why not avoid ???ing taxes so I dip my own ??? in th? swimming pool with?ut ???ing for it!   In ?th?r w?rd?, ??ting ?nti-???i?l m?k? ??n?? f?r me ??r??n?ll? r?g?rdl??? of h?w ??n?id?r?t? ?th?r people ? r?.The prisoners dil?mm? i? a v?r? popular example of a two-person game of strategic int?r??ti?n, ?nd its a common intr?du?t?r? ?x?m?l? in many g?m? th??r? textbooks. Th? l?gi? ?f th? g?m? i? ?im?l?:Th? tw? players in th? game have b??n ???u??d ?f a ?rim? and h?v? b??n placed in ????r?t? r??m? so that th?? cannot communicate with ?n? ?n?th?r. (In other words, th?? cant ??llud? ?r commit t? ?????r?ting.)Each player i? asked ind???nd?ntl? whether h? i? g?ing to ??nf??? t? th? ?rim? ?r r?m?in ?il?nt.B???u?? each of the tw? ?l???r? h?? tw? possible ??ti?n? (?tr?t?gi??), there ?r? f?ur possible ?ut??m?? t? th? g?m?.If both ?l???r? confess, they each get sent to j?il, but f?r f?w?r ???r? th?n if ?n? of th? ?l???r? g?t r?tt?d ?ut b? th? ?th?r.If one ?l???r confesses ?nd th? ?th?r remains ?il?nt, th? silent player g?t? punished severely whil? th? player who ??nf????d g?t? t? go fr??.If b?th players r?m?in ?il?nt, they ???h get a punishment th?t is l??? ??v?r? th?n if they b?th confess.In th ? g?m? itself, ?uni?hm?nt? (?nd r?w?rd?, where relevant) are r??r???nt?d b? utility numb?r?.Positive numb?r? represent g??d ?ut??m??, n?g?tiv? numbers r??r???nt b?d ?ut??m??, ?nd ?n? outcome i? b?tt?r th?n ?n?th?r if th? numb?r associated with it i? greater.Analysing the Pl???r? O?ti?n?On?? a game i? d?fin?d, the n?xt ?t?? in analysing th? game i? to ?????? th? ?l???r? ?tr?t?gi?? ?nd try t? und?r?t?nd h?w th? ?l???r? ?r? likely to b?h?v?. E??n?mi?t? m?k? a f?w assumptions when they ?n?l??? games: first, they assume th?t b?th ?l???r? are ?w?r? ?f the ????ff? b?th f?r th?m??lv?? and f?r th? ?th?r ?l???r, ?nd, ????nd, th?? ???um? th?t both ?l???r? ?r? l??king to rationally m?ximiz? their ?wn ????ff fr?m the g?m?.One ???? initi?l ???r???h i? t? l??k ?t their d?min?nt strategies- ?tr?t?gi?? that are best r?g?rdl??? ?f what ?tr?t?g? th? ?th?r ?l???r chooses. In the ?x?m?l? above, choosing t? ??nf??? i? a d?min?nt ?tr?t?g? f?r both ?l???r?:Confess i? b?tt?r for ?l???r 1 if ?l???r 2 ?h????? t? confess ?in??C?nf??? i? b?tt?r for player 1 if ?l???r 2 ?h????? to r?m?in ?il?ntC?nf??? is better f?r ?l???r 2 if ?l???r 1 ?h????? to ??nf???Confess is b?tt?r f?r ?l???r 2 if ?l???r 1 ?h????? to r?m?in ?il?ntW?rr?n Buff?tt ?r?vid?? ??m? illumin?ti?n ?? t? how the Prisoners Dilemma plays out in business in th? 1985 Berkshire Hathaway Annu?l r???rtTh? domestic t?xtil? indu?tr? operates in a commodity bu?in???, ??m??ting in a w?rld market in whi?h substantial ?x???? ?????it? ?xi?t?.Much ?f the trouble w? experienced w?? ?ttribut?bl?, b?th dir??tl? ?nd indir??tl?, t? ??m??titi?n fr?m f?r?ign ??untri?? wh??? w?rk?r? ?r? paid a small fr??ti?n of the U.S. minimum wage.But th?t in n? way m??n? that ?ur l?b?r f?r?? deserves any bl?m? f?r ?ur ?l??ing. In fact, in ??m??ri??n with employees ?f American indu?tr? generally, ?ur w?rk?r? w?r? ???rl? ??id, as h?? been th? ???? throughout th? t?xtil? bu?in???. In ??ntr??t n?g?ti?ti?n?, union l??d?r? and members w?r? sensitive t? ?ur di??dv?nt?g?? u? ???t ???iti?n and did n?t ?u?h f?r unrealistic w?g? in?r????? ?r un?r?du?tiv? work ?r??ti???.T? the contrary, they tri?d just ?? h?rd ?? w? did t? keep us competitive. Even during our li?uid?ti?n ??ri?d they ??rf?rm?d superbly. (Ir?ni??ll?, w? w?uld h?v? b??n b?tt?r off fin?n?i?ll? if ?ur uni?n h?d b?h?v?d unr????n?bl? some ???r? ?g?; we th?n w?uld h?v? recognized th? im????ibl? future th?t we faced, ?r?m?tl? closed down, ?nd ?v?id?d ?ignifi??nt futur? l?????.)Ov?r the ???r?, we h?d th? ??ti?n of m?king large capital expenditures in the t?xtil? operation th?t would h?v? allowed us t? ??m?wh?t reduce variable ???t?. E??h proposal to do ?? looked like an imm?di?t? winn?r.Measured b? ?t?nd?rd return-on-investment t??t?, in f??t, th??? ?r?????l? usually ?r?mi??d gr??t?r ???n?mi? benefits than w?uld have r??ult?d fr?m ??m??r?bl? expenditures in ?ur highly-profitable candy ?nd n?w?????r businesses.But th? promised b?n?fit? fr?m these t?xtil? investments were illusory. M?n? ?f ?ur compe titors, both d?m??ti? and foreign, were stepping u? t? th? same kind ?f expenditures ?nd, once enough companies did so, their reduced ???t? b???m? the b???lin? f?r r?du??d ?ri??? indu?tr?-wid?.Vi?w?d individually, each ??m??n?? capital investment d??i?i?n ?????r?d ???t-?ff??tiv? ?nd rational; vi?w?d collectively, the d??i?i?n? n?utr?liz?d each ?th?r ?nd w?r? irrational (ju?t ?? h????n? when each ??r??n watching a ??r?d? decides h? can ??? a littl? better if h? ?t?nd? ?n ti?t???). After ???h r?und of inv??tm?nt, ?ll th? ?l???r? had m?r? m?n?? in th? game ?nd returns r?m?in?d ?n?mi?.Thu?, w? f???d a mi??r?bl? ?h?i??: hug? capital inv??tm?nt would h?v? helped to k??? ?ur t?xtil? bu?in??? alive, but would h?v? l?ft u? with terrible returns on ?v?r-gr?wing amounts ?f ???it?l. Aft?r the investment, m?r??v?r, th? f?r?ign ??m??titi?n would ?till h?v? r?t?in?d a m?j?r, continuing ?dv?nt?g? in labor costs.A refusal to inv??t, h?w?v?r, would m?k? us in?r???ingl? n?n-??m??titiv?, ?v?n m???ur?d ?g?in?t d?m??ti? textile manufacturers. I ?lw??? thought m???lf in th? ???iti?n d???rib?d by W??d? All?n in ?n? of hi? m?vi??: “M?r? th?n any other tim? in hi?t?r?, mankind faces a crossroads. One ??th l??d? t? d????ir and utt?r h???l???n???, th? other t? t?t?l extinction. Let us ?r?? we h?v? th? wisdom to choose ??rr??tl?.”For an understanding of h?w th? t?-inv??t-?r-n?t-t?-inv??t dil?mm? ?l??? ?ut in a ??mm?dit? business, it i? instructive to l??k at Burlingt?n Industries, b? far the l?rg??t U.S. t?xtil? ??m??n? both 21 ???r? ago ?nd n?w. In 1964 Burlington h?d ??l?? ?f $1.2 billion against ?ur $50 milli?n.It had ?tr?ngth? in b?th di?tributi?n ?nd ?r?du?ti?n that we ??uld n?v?r h??? t? m?t?h ?nd ?l??, ?f ??ur??, had ?n earnings r???rd far ?u??ri?r t? ?ur?. It? stock sold ?t 60 ?t th? ?nd of 1964; ours w?? 13.Burlingt?n m?d? a decision t? ?ti?k t? th? t?xtil? business, and in 1985 had sales of about $2.8 billion. During th? 1964-85 ??ri?d, th? ??m??n? m?d? capital ?x??nditur?? of about $3 billion, f?r m?r? than any ?th?r U.S. t?xtil? company and m?r? th?n $200-per-share on th?t $60 ?t??k.A very l?rg? part ?f th? ?x??nditur??, I ?m ?ur?, w?? d?v?t?d to cost im?r?v?m?nt ?nd ?x??n?i?n. Given Burlingtons b??i? ??mmitm?nt t? stay in t?xtil??, I w?uld ?l?? surmise th?t th? companys ???it?l decisions were quite r?ti?n?l.N?v?rth?l???, Burlington has l??t ??l?? volume in r??l d?ll?r? ?nd h?? far l?w?r returns ?n ??l?? and ??uit? now th?n 20 years ago. S?lit 2-f?r-1 in 1965, th? ?t??k n?w ??ll? at 34 â€" on ?n ?dju?t?d b??i?, ju?t a littl? ?v?r it? $60 price in 1964. M??nwhil?, th? CPI h?? m?r? th?n tri?l?d.Th?r?f?r?, each share ??mm?nd? about ?n?-third the ?ur?h??ing ??w?r it did ?t th? end ?f 1964. Regular divid?nd? h?v? b??n paid but th??, t??, h?v? ?hrunk ?ignifi??ntl? in ?ur?h??ing ??w?r.This d?v??t?ting ?ut??m? for th? ?h?r?h?ld?r? indicates what can happen wh?n much brain ??w?r and ?n?rg? are ???li?d t? a f?ult? ?r?mi??. The ?itu?ti?n is suggestive ?f S?mu?l J?hn??n? h?r??: “A horse that ??n count t? ten is a r?m?rk?bl? horse â€" n?t a remarkable m?th?m?ti?i?n.” Lik?wi??, a t?xtil? ??m??n? that allocates ???it?l brilli?ntl? within it? indu?tr? is a r?m?rk?bl? t?xtil? company â€" but n?t a r?m?rk?bl? bu?in???.My ??n?lu?i?n from m? ?wn ?x??ri?n??? ?nd fr?m mu?h ?b??rv?ti?n ?f ?th?r bu?in????? i? th?t a good managerial record (m???ur?d b? economic r?turn?) i? far m?r? a function ?f wh?t business boat ??u g?t int? th?n it i? ?f h?w ?ff??tiv?l? ??u r?w (though int?llig?n?? ?nd ?ff?rt h?l? considerably, ?f ??ur??, in ?n? bu?in???, g??d ?r bad).S?m? ???r? ago I wrote: “When a m?n?g?m?nt with a r??ut?ti?n for brilli?n?? t??kl?? a bu?in??? with a r??ut?ti?n for ???r fund?m?nt?l ???n?mi??, it i? th? reputation ?f th? bu?in??? that r?m?in? int??t.” N?thing h?? since ?h?ng?d m? ??int ?f view ?n that matter. Sh?uld ??u find yourself in a chronically-leaking b??t, ?n?rg? d?v?t?d to changing v????l? i? likely to b? m?r? ?r?du?tiv? th?n ?n?rg? d?v?t?d t? ??t?hing l??k?.GAME THEORY STRATEGIESThe ?ri??n?r? dilemma l??? th? f?und?ti?n f?r advanced game th??r? ?tr?t?gi??, ?f whi?h th? ???ul?r ones in?lud?:M?t?hing P?nni??This i? a z?r?-?um g?m? th?t inv?lv?? tw? ?l???r? (??ll them Player A ?nd Player B) ?imult?n??u?l? placing a ??nn? ?n th? t?bl?, with th? ????ff d???nding ?n whether the ??nni?? m?t?h.If both pennies ?r? h??d? ?r t?il?, Pl???r A wins ?nd k???? Player B’? ??nn?. If they do n?t match, Player B wins and keeps Pl???r A’s ??nn?.D??dl??kThis i? a social dil?mm? ???n?ri? like ?ri??n?r’? dilemma in th?t tw? ?l???r? ??n ?ith?r cooperate ?r d?f??t (i.?. not ?????r?t?). In deadlock, if Pl???r A ?nd Player B both cooperate, they ???h g?t a ????ff ?f 1, and if they b?th defect, th?? ???h g?t a ????ff of 2.But if Pl???r A ?????r?t?? ?nd Pl???r B defects, th?n A g?t? a payoff ?f 0 ?nd B g?t? a ????ff ?f 3. In th? payoff di?gr?m b?l?w, th? fir?t numeral in th? cells (?) thr?ugh (d) r??r???nt? Player A’s ????ff, ?nd the ????nd num?r?l i? th?t of Player B:D??dl??k P???ff M?trixPl???r BC????r?t?D?f??tPlayer ACooperate(?) 1, 1(b) 0, 3Defect(?) 3, 0(d) 2, 2D??dl??k diff?r? fr?m ?ri??n?r’? dilemma in th?t th? action of gr??t??t mutual benefit (i.?. b?th defect) i? also th? d?min?nt ?tr?t?g?. A d?min?nt ?tr?t?g? f?r a ?l???r i? d?fin?d ?? one th?t produces th? high??t payoff ?f any available strategy, r?g?rdl??? of th? strategies employed by the ?th?r players.A ??mm?nl? ?it?d example ?f deadlock is th?t ?f two nuclear ??w?r? tr?ing t? r???h ?n agreement to ?limin?t? th?ir ?r??n?l? ?f nu?l??r bombs. In thi? case, cooperation implies adhering t? the ?gr??m?nt, whil? defection means secretly reneging on th? ?gr??m?nt ?nd r?t?ining th? nu?l??r arsenal.Th? b??t ?ut??m? f?r ?ith?r n?ti?n, unf?rtun?t?l?, i? t? renege on the agreement and r?t?in the nu?l??r ??ti?n whil? the ?th?r n?ti?n ?limin?t?? it? ?r??n?l, ?in?? thi? will give the f?rm?r a tr?m?nd?u? hidd?n ?dv?nt?g? ?v?r the latter if w?r ?v?r breaks ?ut b?tw??n th? tw?.The ????nd-b??t ??ti?n is for b?th t? defect or n?t cooperate, ?in?? this retains th?ir ?t?tu? as nu?l??r ??w?r?.C?urn?t CompetitionThi? m?d?l is ?l?? ??n???tu?ll? ?imil?r t? prisoner’s dil?mm?, and i? n?m?d after Fr?n?h mathematician Augustin Cournot, wh? intr?du??d it in 1838.Th? m??t ??mm?n application ?f th? C?urn?t m?d?l i? in d???ribing a du???l? ?r two main producers in a market.For ?x?m?l?, ???um? companies A ?nd B ?r?du?? an id?nti??l ?r?du?t and can produce high ?r l?w ?u?ntiti??. If th?? b?th cooperate ?nd ?gr?? t? ?r?du?? ?t l?w levels, th?n limit?d supply will tr?n?l?t? into a high price f?r th? ?r?du?t ?n th? market and ?ub?t?nti?l ?r?fit? f?r b?th ??m??ni??.On th? other h?nd, if they d?f??t ?nd ?r?du?? ?t high l?v?l?, th? m?rk?t will be swamped ?nd r??ult in a l?w price for the product and ??n???u?ntl? l?w?r ?r?fit? f?r both. But if one cooperates (i.e. produces ?t low l?v?l?) and th? ?th?r d?f??t? (i.?. ?urr??titi?u?l? produces ?t high l?v?l?), then th? former ju?t br??k? ?v?n whil? the latter ??rn? a high?r profit th?n if th?? b?th ?????r?t?.The ????ff m?trix f?r companies A ?nd B is shown (figures r??r???nt ?r?fit in milli?n? ?f dollars). Thu?, if A ?????r?t?? ?nd produces ?t l?w l?v?l? while B d?f??t? and produces ?t high levels, th? ????ff i? as shown in ??ll (b)â€"br??k-?v?n for ??m??n? A ?nd $7 million in ?r?fit? for ??m??n? B.Cournot Payoff MatrixCompany BC????r?t?D?f??tCompany ACooperate(?) 4, 4(b) 0, 7Defect(?) 7, 0(d) 2, 2C??rdin?ti?nIn coordination, ?l???r? ??rn higher ????ff? when th?? select th? ??m? course ?f action.A? ?n example, consider tw? t??hn?l?g? gi?nt? wh? ?r? d??iding between intr?du?ing a r?di??l new t??hn?l?g? in memory ?hi?? th?t ??uld ??rn th?m hundreds ?f milli?n? in ?r?fit?, or a revised v?r?i?n ?f an ?ld?r t??hn?l?g? that would ??rn them much l???.If ?nl? ?n? ??m??n? d??id?? t? go ?h??d with the new t??hn?l?g?, rate ?f ?d??ti?n by ??n?um?r? w?uld b? significantly l?w?r, ?nd ?? a r??ult, it w? uld ??rn l??? than if both ??m??ni?? d??id? ?n th? same ??ur?? ?f ??ti?n. The ????ff m?trix i? shown b?l?w (figur?? r??r???nt ?r?fit in milli?n? ?f d?ll?r?).Thus, if b?th ??m??ni?? d??id? t? introduce th? n?w technology, th?? w?uld earn $600 milli?n apiece, while intr?du?ing a r?vi??d v?r?i?n ?f the ?ld?r technology w?uld earn them $300 milli?n ???h, as shown in th? ??ll?.But if C?m??n? A decides alone t? intr?du?? th? n?w t??hn?l?g?, it would ?nl? ??rn $150 million, ?v?n th?ugh C?m??n? B w?uld ??rn $0 (?r??um?bl? b???u?? ??n?um?r? m?? n?t b? willing to pay f?r its now-obsolete t??hn?l?g?).In thi? case, it m?k?? ??n?? for both companies t? work together rather th?n on their ?wn.Coordination Payoff MatrixCompany BNew technologyOld technologyCompany ANew technology(?) 600, 600(b) 0, 150Old technology(?) 150, 0(d) 300, 300C?nti??d? G?m?Thi? i? an ?xt?n?iv?-f?rm game in whi?h two players ?lt?rn?t?l? get a chance t? t?k? th? l?rg?r share ?f a slowly in?r???ing m?n?? ?t??h.Th? ??nti??d? g ?m? i? ???u?nti?l, since the ?l???r? make th?ir m?v?? one ?ft?r ?n?th?r rather th?n ?imult?n??u?l?; each ?l???r also knows th? ?tr?t?gi?? ?h???n b? th? ?l???r? who played b?f?r? them. The game concludes as ???n as a ?l???r takes th? ?t??h, with th?t player g?tting the l?rg?r ??rti?n ?nd th? ?th?r player g?tting th? ?m?ll?r ??rti?n.A? ?n ?x?m?l?, assume Pl???r A g??? fir?t and h?? t? d??id? if h? should “t?k?” ?r “pass” th? ?t??h, whi?h ?urr?ntl? amounts to $2. If h? t?k??, th?n A ?nd B g?t $1 ???h, but if A passes, th? d??i?i?n to take or pass now has to be m?d? b? Pl???r B. If B t?k??, ?h? gets $3 (i.e. th? ?r?vi?u? stash ?f $2 + $1) and A g?t? $0.But if B passes, A n?w g?t? to d??id? wh?th?r t? t?k? or pass, and so ?n. If both players ?lw??? ?h???? t? ????, th?? ???h r???iv? a ????ff ?f $100 ?t the ?nd ?f th? g?m?.Th? point ?f th? g?m? i? if A ?nd B b?th ?????r?t? ?nd ??ntinu? to pass until the ?nd ?f th? g?m?, th?? get the m?ximum ????ut ?f $100 ???h. But if th?? distrust th? ?th?r ?l???r ?nd ?x???t th?m to “t?k?” ?t the fir?t ????rtunit?, Nash ??uilibrium ?r?di?t? th? players will take th? lowest ????ibl? claim ($1 in thi? ????).Ex??rim?nt?l ?tudi?? h?v? ?h?wn, however, this “r?ti?n?l” b?h?vi?ur (as ?r?di?t?d b? g?m? theory) i? ??ld?m ?xhibit?d in r??l lif?. Thi? i? n?t intuitiv?l? ?ur?ri?ing given th? tin? size of th? initial ????ut in r?l?ti?n t? th? fin?l ?n?. Simil?r b?h?vi?r b? ?x??rim?nt?l ?ubj??t? has ?l?? b??n ?xhibit?d in th? tr?v?ll?r’? dil?mm?.Traveler’s Dil?mm?Thi? n?n-z?r? ?um g?m?, in whi?h both ?l???r? ?tt?m?t t? m?ximiz? their ?wn ????ut with?ut regard to the ?th?r, w?? devised by ???n?mi?t K?u?hikB??u in 1994.F?r example, in tr?v?l?r’? dil?mm?, ?n ?irlin? agrees t? ??? tw? travellers ??m??n??ti?n for damages t? id?nti??l it?m?.However, the two travellers are ????r?t?l? required t? estimate th? value ?f the item, with a minimum ?f $2 ?nd a m?ximum ?f $100. If both writ? d?wn th? ??m? v?lu?, th? ?irlin? will r?imbur?? ? ??h of th?m that ?m?unt. But if the v?lu?? diff?r, th? ?irlin? will ??? them th? l?w?r value, with a b?nu? ?f $2 f?r th? tr?v?ll?r who wr?t? d?wn this l?w?r value ?nd a ??n?lt? of $2 f?r th? tr?v?ll?r who wrote d?wn th? higher v?lu?.Th? N??h equilibrium l?v?l, b???d ?n b??kw?rd indu?ti?n, is $2 in this ???n?ri?. But ?? in th? ??nti??d? g?m?, laboratory experiments consistently d?m?n?tr?t? m??t ??rti?i??nt?, n?iv?l? or ?th?rwi??, ?i?k a numb?r much high?r th?n $2.Tr?v?l?r’? dilemma can b? ???li?d to ?n?l?z? a v?ri?t? of r??l-lif? situations. Th? ?r????? ?f backward induction, for ?x?m?l?, ??n h?l? explain h?w tw? ??m??ni?? ?ng?g?d in ?utthr??t competition ??n steadily r?t?h?t product ?ri??? l?w?r in a bid t? gain m?rk?t ?h?r?, whi?h m?? r??ult in th?m in?urring in?r???ingl? gr??t?r l????? in th? process.Wh?t i? a Zero-Sum G?m?Z?r?-?um is a ?itu?ti?n in game th??r? in whi?h ?n? ??r??n’? gain i? ??uiv?l?nt t? ?n?th?r’? l???, ?? the n?t ?h?ng? in w??lth or b?n?fit is zero. A z?r?- ?um g?m? m?? h?v? as few ?? two ?l???r?, ?r milli?n? of ??rti?i??nt?.Z?r?-?um games ?r? f?und in g?m? th??r?, but ?r? l??? common th?n n?n-z?r? ?um g?m??. Poker ?nd gambling ?r? ???ul?r examples ?f z?r?-?um g?m?? ?in?? th? sum ?f th? amounts w?n b? ??m? ?l???r? equals th? ??mbin?d l????? ?f th? ?th?r?.Games lik? chess ?nd t?nni?, where th?r? is ?n? winner ?nd ?n? l???r, ?r? also zero-sum g?m??. In the fin?n?i?l markets, ??ti?n? and futur?? ?r? ?x?m?l?? of z?r?-?um games, ?x?luding tr?n???ti?n ???t?. F?r every ??r??n wh? g?in? on a ??ntr??t, there is a ??unt?r-??rt? wh? l????.BREAKING DOWN Z?r?-Sum GameIn g?m? th??r?, the g?m? ?f matching ??nni?? i? often ?it?d ?? an ?x?m?l? of a zero-sum g?m?. Th? game inv?lv?? tw? ?l???r?, A and B, ?imult?n??u?l? ?l??ing a ??nn? ?n the t?bl?.Th? payoff depends ?n wh?th?r th? pennies match ?r not. If b?th ??nni?? ?r? h??d? ?r t?il?, Player A wins ?nd k???? Pl???r B’s penny; if th?? d? not match, Player B win? and k???? Pl???r A’? ??nn?.This is a z?r?-?um game because one player’s gain is th? ?th?r’? loss. Th? ????ff? for Pl???r? A ?nd B are ?h?wn in th? t?bl? b?l?w, with the fir?t num?r?l in ??ll? (a) thr?ugh (d) representing Player A’? payoff, ?nd th? ????nd num?r?l Pl???r B’s ?l???ff. A? ??n b? ???n, th? ??mbin?d ?l???ff for A and B in ?ll f?ur ??ll? i? z?r?.Most ?th?r popular game th??r? strategies lik? the ?ri??n?r’? dil?mm?, Cournot C?m??titi?n, Centipede G?m? and Deadlock are n?n-z?r? ?um.Zero-sum games are the opposite of win-win situations â€" ?u?h ?? a trade ?gr??m?nt that ?ignifi??ntl? increases trade b?tw??n tw? n?ti?n? â€" or lose-lose situations, like war f?r instance. In r??l lif?, however, thing? ?r? not ?lw??? ?? ?l??r-?ut, ?nd g?in? ?nd l????? ?r? ?ft?n diffi?ult to ?u?ntif?.In th? ?t??k m?rk?t, tr?ding is ?ft?n thought ?f a z?r?-?um game. H?w?v?r, b???u?? tr?d?? ?r? m?d? ?n the b??i? ?f futur? ?x???t?ti?n? ?nd tr?d?r? have diff?r?nt ?r?f?r?n??? f?r risk, a trade can be mutu?ll? b?n?fi?i?l. Inv?? ting l?ng?r t?rm is a ???itiv? ?um ?itu?ti?n b???u?? ???it?l fl?w? f??ilit?ti?n ?r?du?ti?n ?nd j?b? th?t th?n provide ?r?du?ti?n ?nd j?b? that th?n provide ??ving? and in??m? th?t th?n provide investment to ??ntinu? the cycle.Pri?ing G?m?This example ??int? a v?r? grim ?i?tur? of human int?r??ti?n?. Indeed, m?n? times we observe ?????r?ti?n r?th?r than it? ??m?l?t? failure. One important ?r?? ?f r????r?h in game theory is th? analysis of ?nvir?nm?nt?, in?tituti?n?, ?nd n?rm?, which ??tu?ll? ?u?t?in cooperation in th? face ?f such ???mingl? h???l??? ?itu?ti?n? ?? th? ?ri??n?r?’ dilemma.Just t? illu?tr?t? ?n? ?u?h ???n?ri?, ??n?id?r a r???titi?n ?f the Prisoners’ Dil?mm? g?m?. In a r????t?d int?r??ti?n, each ?l???r h?? t? take int? ????unt n?t ?nl? wh?t i? their ????ff in ???h interaction but ?l?? h?w th? ?ut??m? ?f ???h ?f these int?r??ti?n? influences the futur? ones.F?r ?x?m?l?, ???h ?l???r m?? induce ?????r?ti?n b? th? ?th?r player b? ?d??ting a ?tr?t?g? th?t ?uni?h?? b?d b?h? vi?r ?nd rewards good b?h?vi?r.LIMIT?TI?NS ?F THE GAME THEORYInfinit? number of ?tr?t?g?In a g?m? th??r? we ???um? that th?r? is finit? numb?r ?f ????ibl? ??ur??? of action available to ???h player. But in practice a ?l???r may have infinit? numb?r ?f strategies or ??ur??? of ??ti?n.Kn?wl?dg? ?b?ut ?tr?t?g?Game theory ???um?? that each player ?? the knowledge ?f ?tr?t?gi?? ?v?il?bl? to his ????n?nt. But ??m? tim?? knowledge ?b?ut strategy about th? opponent is n?t ?v?il?bl? to ?l???r?. Thi? l??d? t? th? wr?ng conclusions.Z?r? ?ut??m??W? have ???um?d that g?in of one person i? th? l??? of another person. But in practice g?in ?f ?n? ??r??n m?? n?t b? ??u?l t? th? l??? ?f another person i.?. opponent.Ri?k ?nd un??rt?int?G?m? th??r? does not t?k?? into consideration th? concept of ?r?b?bilit?. So game th??r? u?u?ll? ignores th? ?r???n?? ?f ri?k ?nd un??rt?int?.Finit? numb?r of ??m??tit?r?Th?r? ?r? finit? numb?r? ?f ??m??tit?r? ?? h?? b??n ???um?d in th? g?m? theory. But in real ?r??ti?? th?r? ??n b? more th?n th? ?x???t?d number of ?l???r?.C?rt?int? of P?? offG?m? th??r? ???um?? th?t ????ff is always kn?wn in advance. But ??m?tim?? it i? impossible to kn?w th? pay ?ff in ?dv?n??. The d??i?i?n ?itu?ti?n in f??t becomes multidimensional with large numb?r ?f v?ri?bl??.Rul?? ?f G?m?Ev?r? g?m? i? ?l???d ????rding t? the ??t ?f rul?? i.?. specific rul?? whi?h g?v?rn the b?h?vi?ur of th? players. As th?r? we h?v? set of rules ?f playing Ch???, B?dmint?n, Hockey ?t?. G?m? th??r? ???um?? ?v?r? player kn?w? th??? rules.

Homology Is A Central Concept Within The Field Of...

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Avatar Essay - 1585 Words

Myths are supernatural or religious tales with cultural and historical backgrounds, often containing moral lessons that are valued by the culture they originated from. The movie Avatar is a modern myth, its popularity stemming from the inspiration it draws from familiar and widespread themes found in classical myths. Avatar reuses and refreshes these themes for current audiences. Ancient stories such as those of Icarus, Prometheus, Gilgamesh, and Hercules, as well as contemporary issues, represent many of the same themes that are revealed in Avatar. Avatar is the story of Jake Sully, a paraplegic marine that is sent to the world Pandora to take the place of his dead-brothers job as a Na’vi avatar pilot. The humans on Pandora use these†¦show more content†¦In the ancient Greek story of Icarus, Daedalus constructs a pair of wings made out of wax and feathers for himself and his son Icarus to escape the Labyrinth in Crete. In their attempt to overcome their human limitations, Icarus fails to obey his fathers only rule: do not fly too close to the sun. He reaches too far and the wax on his wings melts, causing him to plummet to his death. This is often thought to illustrate the consequences humans must face when overreaching and trying too hard to do what they are not meant to do. Icarus’s failure to listen to common sense is synonymous with the failure of the humans to listen to Jake Sully in Avatar. The humans cause the â€Å"death† of any relationship with the Na’vi due to their own negligence . Another myth of a cautionary tale concerns Prometheus, a Titan, who chose to go against the gods by stealing the secret of fire in order to help humans build society and live as gods. Yet in the end, the humans suffer as Pandora is sent to earth with a box filled with terrible things with which to punish the mortals who dared to take one of the things that separated gods from humans: fire. 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Leadership The MBTI Assessment Free Essays

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment that helps to assess one’s psychological preferences based on a psychometric questionnaire. These preferences were extracted from the typological theories proposed by Carl Gustav Jung writings in his book ‘Psychological Types’. The MBTI focuses on normal populations and emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership: The MBTI Assessment or any similar topic only for you Order Now [1] Also recognized commonly as a behavioral assessment tool, the MBTI uses a combination of 4 letters and each represent a clearly defined attribute. Altogether, the MBTI test consists of 16 different personality types that will describe one’s personality in alleged detail. The MBTI test has reviewed that I am type ENTJ which covers aspects of being extraverted, intuitive, thinking and judging altogether but in different extents. According to Dr. David Keirsey, he states that a person with type ENTJ is recognized as a ‘Fieldmarshal’ or basically someone who is a natural born leader as agreed by Joe Butt in his article on ENTJ. He adds that this attribute of Fieldmarshals are a rare breed that are natural at taking the lead, are structural organizers and have an act on devising contingency plans. These collectively form characteristics of a leader who will be decisive and are visionary in setting goals and direction. Having these traits of a leader, Fieldmarshals are expected to take up roles of higher responsibility and will usually take pleasure in them. However their strong devotion to their work may sometimes be a hindrance to their social lifestyles. Another prevalent characteristic of a Fieldmarshal is the tendency to emphasize on efficiency and are usually intolerant of prodigality. [5 6] I have to admit that while reading the results and review of my personality type; it felt like a strong confirmation of how I evaluate myself. Most of the traits specified were indeed very accurate such that I am a natural leader. I have come to realize that not only do I have the tendency to lead others but I also enjoy taking responsibility and I feel more comfortable in planning ahead rather than doing things spontaneously. Being extraverted is also a spot on because I am that person who would walk across the room to get to know someone new and am not afraid to express my thoughts publicly. Looking at the basis of how the personality results were generated, I still do not comprehend how I only scored 1 in the ‘Thinking’ category as I usually make decisions based on facts and logic. Apart from the MBTI test, the Dominance Influence Steadiness Conscientiousness (DISC) test is also another credible assessment tool that provides an effective feedback and rational to help one identify his/her personal behavior and strengths, thus increasing self-awareness. The DISC assessment is a shorter test as compared to the MBTI and yet yields more specific results from over 19,000 personalized responses and 384 separate behavioral descriptions. [34] One other assessment would be the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) which measures thinking preferences in people. This model functions very similar to the others by incorporating cognitive style measurement. HBDI in short, adapts a concept of determining one’s dominant thinking style based on analytical, sequential, interpersonal and imaginative aspects. [74] Paul D. Tieger and Barbara Barron-Tieger, who are both recognized experts in personality type and career development, agreed that the MBTI can serve as career counselors to guide and find jobs that are best suited for a person. [8] However the Army Research Institute commissioned a review on this and argued that there is no evidence for the utility of the test and further claimed that the classification scheme is limited and may be an example of stereotyping personalities. Other questions have been raised in David Pittenger’s report of how the MBTI instrument comes up short for what it purports to measure. Some of which are mainly concerns on the reliability and validity of the results. [9] Considering all that, the objective of the MBTI is somewhat achieved when it helps to facilitate self-awareness which can then lead to self- improvement. With critical feedback provided, one will be able to realize their potential essentially natural leaders, and also to reaffirm one’s focus on their strengths. As discussed, discretion may be necessary to protect one against undue reliance upon the MBTI especially in career choices. How to cite Leadership: The MBTI Assessment, Papers

Rare Earth Element free essay sample

Lanthanum is a crucial rare earth element to our modern economy because it plays an integral component in modern technologies such as: laptop computers, electric automobiles, and hand-held electronic devices such as cellular phones. Lanthanum basically acts as a battery source to the above devices modern technologies. Lanthanum is also make glass and lastly to reduce the level of phosphates in patients with kidney disease. Geologists obtain Lanthanum through the process of solvent extraction of light rare earth minerals such as bastnaesite, monazite, allanite and cerite. Lanthanum is also found in felsic igneous rocks and to a lesser extent, lower ultramafic rocks. Lanthanum has a complex multistage extraction process in which the extraction of monazite is involved. There are three main steps which are implemented in the extraction process. First step is the extraction of lanthanum hydroxide from monazite by using caustic soda, second step is the digestion with nitric acid and precipitation with ammonium hydroxide and the final step is calcination of Lanthanum oxalate to Lanthanum oxide. We will write a custom essay sample on Rare Earth Element or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The leading producer of REEs in the world is China; they account for more than 48 percent of the world’s REE reserves. More than 70% of light rare earth elements (which includes Lanthanum) are supplied from one mine in China; Bayan Obo mine. China’s stronghold over the REE industry compels us to have good relations with them. Other producers are Brazil, Malaysia and India. There may be other places in the world that may have Lanthanum but they do not use it in a particularly capital intensive way. For instance high values of Lanthanum (gt;36 mg kg-1) is found in the sub soils of northern Portugal and Galicia in Spain, in the Italian alkaline magmatic province and in karst of Slovenia and Croatia. Through reasonable diplomatic deliberation the U. S can coerce these countries to allow them to turn their values into a capital intensive industry. Lanthanum plays a crucial role in our economy, however if we cannot find enough of it, we could use cerium as a backup REE. Cerium can also be used as a battery supply and can be used to produce glass similarly to Lanthanum. Aluminum can be used as a supplementary medicinal element instead of Lanthanum. Aluminum is a common element and it is accessible so the U. S has nothing to worry about as it regards to patients with Kidney problem In order to obtain cerium, the U. S does not need to import cerium from China or any of the other countries that have considerable.

Algebraic Operations on ACT Math Strategies and Formulas

Algebraic Operations on ACT Math Strategies and Formulas SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Variables, exponents, and more variables, whoo! ACT operations questions will involve all of these (and so much more!). So if you ever wondered what to do with or how to solve some of those extra long and clunky algebra problems (â€Å"What is the equivalent to ${2/3}a^2b - (18b - 6c) +$ †¦Ã¢â‚¬  you get the picture), then this is the guide for you. This will be your complete guide to ACT operations questions- what they’ll look like on the test, how to perform operations with multiple variables and exponents, and what kinds of methods and strategies you’ll need to get them done as fast and as accurately as possible. You'll see these types of questions at least three times on any given ACT, so let's take a look. What Are Operations? There are four basic mathematical operations- adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. The end goal for any particular algebra problem may be different, depending on the question, but the operations and the methods to solve them will be the same. For example, when solving a single variable equation or a system of equations, your ultimate objective is to solve for a missing variable. However, when solving an ACT operations problem, you must use your knowledge of mathematical operations to identify an equivalent expression (NOT solve for a missing variable). This means that the answer to these types of problems will always include a variable or multiple variables, since we are not actually finding the value of the variable. Let’s look at two examples, side-by-side. This is a single variable equation. Your objective is to find $x$. If $(9x-9)=-$, then $x=$? A. $-{92/9}$B. $-{20/9}$C. $-{/9}$D. $-{2/9}$E. $70/9$ This is an ACT operations problem. You must find an equivalent expression after performing a mathematical operation on a polynomial. The product $(2x^4y)(3x^5y^8)$ is equivalent to: F. $5x^9y^9$G. $6x^9y^8$H. $6x^9y^9$J. $5x^{20}y^8$K. $6x^{20}y^8$ (We will go through exactly how to solve this problem shortly) Let's break down each component of an operations problem, step-by-step. (Also, bonus French braid lesson!) Operation Question How-To's Let us look at how to identify operations questions when you see them and how to solve for your answer. How to Identify an Operations Problem As we said before, the end goal of an operations problem is not to solve for a missing variable. Because of this, you can identify an operations problem by looking at your answer choices. If the question involves variables (instead of integers) in the given equation and in the answer choices, then it is likely you are dealing with an operations problem. This means that if the problem asks you to identify an â€Å"equivalent† expression or the â€Å"simplified form† of an expression, then it is highly likely that you are dealing with an operations problem. How to Solve an Operations Problem In order to solve these types of questions, you have two options: you can either solve your problems by using algebra, or by using the strategy of plugging in numbers. Let’s begin by looking at how algebraic operations work. First, you must understand how to add, multiply, subtract, and divide terms with variables and exponents. (Before we go through how to do this, be sure to brush up on your understanding of exponents and integers.) So let us look at the rules of how to manipulate terms with variables and exponents. Addition and Subtraction When adding or subtracting terms with variables (and/or exponents), you can only add or subtract terms that have the exact same variable. This rule includes variables with exponents- only terms with variables raised to the same power may be added together (or subtracted). For example, $x$ and $x^2$ CANNOT be combined into one term (i.e. $2x^2$ or $x^3$). It can only be written as $x + x^2$. To add terms with variables and/or exponents, simply add the numbers before the variable (the coefficients) just as you would add any numbers without variables, and keep the variables intact. (Note: if there is no coefficient in front of the variable, it is worth 1. $x$ is the same thing as $1x$.) Again, if one term has an additional variable or is raised to a different power, the two terms cannot be added together. Yes: $x + 4x = 5x$ $10xy - 2xy = 8xy$ No: $6x + 5y$ $xy - 2x - y$ $x + x^2 + x^3$ These expressions all have terms with different variables (or variables to different powers) and so CANNOT be combined into one term. How they are written above is as simplified as they can ever get. Multiplication and Division When multiplying terms with variables, you may multiply any variable term with another. The variables do not have to match in order for you to multiply the terms- the variables instead are combined, or taken to an additional exponent if the variables are the same, after multiplying. (For more on multiplying numbers with exponents, check out the section on exponents in our guide to advanced integers) $x * y = xy$ $ab * c = abc$ $z * z = z^2$ The variables in front of the terms (the coefficients) are also multiplied with one another as usual. This new coefficient will then be attached to the combined variables. $2x * 3y = 6xy$ $3ab * c = 3abc$ Just as when we multiplying variable terms, we must take each component separately when we divide them. This means that the coefficients will be reduced/divided with regard to one another (just as with regular division), as will the variables. (Note: again, if your variables involve exponents, now might be a good time to brush up on your rules of dividing with exponents.) $${8xy}/{2x} = 4y$$ $${5a^2b^3}/{15a^2b^2} = b/3$$ $${30y + 45}/5 = 6y + 9$$ When working on operations problems, first take each component separately, before you put them together. Typical Operation Questions Though there are several ways an operations question may be presented to you on the ACT, the principles behind each problem are essentially the same- you must manipulate terms with variables by performing one (or more) of the four mathematical operations on them. Most of the operations problems you’ll see on the ACT will ask you to perform a mathematical operation (subtraction, addition, multiplication, or division) on a term or expression with variables and then ask you to identify the â€Å"equivalent† expression in the answer choices. More rarely, the question may ask you to manipulate an expression in order to present your equation â€Å"in terms of† another variable (e.g. â€Å"which of the following expressions shows the equation in terms of $x$?†). Now let’s look at the different kinds of operations problems in action. The product $(2x^4y)(3x^5y^8)$ is equivalent to: F. $5x^9y^9$G. $6x^9y^8$H. $6x^9y^9$J. $5x^{20}y^8$K. $6x^{20}y^8$ Here, we have our problem from earlier, but now we know how to go about solving it using algebra. We also have a second method for solving the question (for those of you are uninterested in or unwilling to use algebra), and that is to use the strategy of plugging in numbers. We’ll look at each method in turn. Solving Method 1: Algebra operations Knowing what we know about algebraic operations, we can multiply our terms. First, we must multiply our coefficients: $2 * 3 = 6$ This will be the coefficient in front of our new term, so we can eliminate answer choices F and J. Next, let us multiply our individual variables. $x^4 * x^5$ $x^[4 + 5]$ $x^9$ And, finally, our last variable. $y * y^8$ $y^[1 + 8]$ $y^9$ Now, combine each piece of our term to find our final answer: $6{x^9}y^9$ Our final answer is H, $6{x^9}y^9$ Solving Method 2: Plugging in our own numbers Alternatively, we can find our answer by plugging in our own numbers (remember- any time the question uses variables, we can plug in our own numbers). Let us say that $x = 2$ and $y = 3$ (Why those numbers? Why not! Any numbers will do- except for 1 or 0, which is explained in our PIN guide- but since we are working with exponents, smaller numbers will give us more manageable results.) So let us look at our first term and convert it into an integer using the numbers we selected to replace our variables. $2{x^4}y$ $2(2^4)(3)$ $2(16)(3)$ $96$ Now, let us do the same to our second term. $3{x^5}{y^8}$ $3(2^5)(3^8)$ $3(32)(6,561)$ $629,856$ And finally, we must multiply our terms together. $(2{x^4}y)(3{x^5}{y^8})$ $(96)(629,856)$ $60,466,176$ Now, we need to find the answer in our answer choices that matches our result. We must plug in our same values for $x$ and $y$ as we did here and then see which answer choice gives us the same result. If you are familiar with the process of using PIN, you know that our best option is usually to start with the middle answer choice. So let us test answer choice H to start. $6{x^9}y^9$ $6(2^9)(3^9)$ $6(512)(19,683)$ $60,466,176$ Success! We have found our correct answer on the first try! (Note: if our first option had not worked, we would have seen whether it was too low or too high and then picked our next answer choice to try, accordingly.) Our final answer is again H, $6{x^9}y^9$ Now let us look at our second type of problem. For all real numbers $b$ and $c$ such that the product of $c$ and 3 is $b$, which of the following expressions represents the sum of $c$ and 3 in terms of $b$? A. $b+3$B. $3b+3$C. $3(b+3)$D. ${b+3}/3$E. $b/3+3$ This question requires us to translate the problem first into an equation. Then, we must manipulate that equation until we have isolated a different variable than the original. Again, we have two methods with which to solve this question: algebra or PIN. Let us look at both. Solving Method 1: Algebra First, let us begin by translating our equation into an algebraic one. We are told that the product of $c$ and 3 is equal to $b$. A â€Å"product† means we must multiply $c$ and 3 and so our equation looks like this: $3c = b$ Now we are asked to find the sum of $c$ and 3. This means we must isolate $c$ so that we can add them together. So let us first isolate $c$ by using our knowledge of algebraic operations. $3c = b$ $c = b/3$ Now, we can sum $c$ and 3 by replacing our $c$ with $b/3$. $c + 3$ ${b/3} + 3$ Our answer matches answer choice E. Our final answer is E. Solving Method 2: Plugging in numbers Alternatively, we can use our technique of plugging in numbers. Because our question deals with variables, we can choose our own numbers (so long as they follow the rules of our given information.) We are told that the product of $c$ and 3 is equal to $b$. So let us assign a value to $c$ and use this information to find the value of $b$. So let us say that $c = 4$. (Why 4? Why not!) If $c = 4$, then the product of $c$ and 3 is: $3c = b$ $3(4) = b$ $b = 12$ So, when $c$ equals 4, $b$ equals 12. Now we must find the sum of $c$ and 3. $3 + c$ $3 + (4)$ $7$ Now that we have found our sum, we must identify the answer choice that gives us this sum. All of our answer choices are presented to us in terms of $b$, so we will use our found value of 12 to replace $b$ for each. As with all PIN questions, let us start with the middle answer option. Answer choice C gives us: $3(b + 3)$ We can tell just by looking at it that this will be far larger than 7, but we can always test this out. $3(12 + 3)$ $3(15)$ $45$ We can eliminate answer choice C. Just by glancing, we can see that answer choices A and B will also be larger than 12, which means we can eliminate them as well. Let us try answer choice D. ${b + 3}/3$ ${12 + 3}/3$ $15/3$ $5$ Answer choice D did not match our sum, which means we can eliminate it as well. By process of elimination, we are left with answer choice E, but let us test it to be sure. ${b/3} + 3$ ${12/3} + 3$ $4 + 3$ $7$ Success! We have found the answer choice that matches the sum we found. Our final answer is, once again, E, ${b/3} + 3$. As you can see, the answer to your operations questions will always be in variables and the problem will always require you to interpret and manipulate expressions with variables, but there are always multiple options for how to solve these types of problems. You've got the power to decide how you would like to solve and manipulate your operations problems. Magic! Strategies for Solving Operations Questions Now that we’ve seen the types of operations questions you’ll see on the ACT, let’s review our solving strategies. #1: Use PIN when needed (or to double-check your answer) If you ever feel concerned that you may be going down the wrong path while manipulating your operations problems, or if you simply want to double-check your answer, it's never a bad idea to use the strategy of plugging in numbers. Although it can take a little longer plug in your own numbers for your variables, you'll never have to fear misremembering how to manipulate your exponents, your variables, or your equations as a whole. Once you're able to use real numbers for your variables, the math will be a piece of cake. #2: Focus on one aspect of the term at a time It can become all too easy to lose yourself when working with multiple variables at once, especially when it comes to multiplication and division. The test-makers know this and will provide bait answers for any number of common mistakes. In order to keep all your components organized, focus on just one piece of each expression at a time. First, look at the coefficients, then look at the variables. This will help keep all your moving pieces in order and lessen the odds of mix-ups and mistakes. #3: Eliminate your answer options as you go Operations problems can sometimes mess with your head, not because they are inherently difficult, but because the ACT is a marathon and your brain can get tired and confused (and lazy). This, combined with the fact that all the answer choices generally look quite similar, with only small differences- a minus sign instead of a plus sign, one coefficient difference, etc.- can lead you to select the wrong answer, even when you know what the correct one should be. To avoid this kind of careless error (the worst kind of error!), eliminate your answer choices as you go through your problem. Know that the coefficient for your $y$ value must be 3? Immediately cross out any answer choices that give you anything other than $3y$. It may seem inefficient to solve problems this way, but it will keep your answers much more clear. #4: Keep careful track of your negatives Not only can it be difficult to keep track of multiple variables, but it's even easier to mix-up the proper negative and positive signs. Many students make careless errors with their negative signs and the ACT test-makers are all too aware of this. They will provide all manner of bait answers for anyone who misplaces even a single negative sign, so be very careful. $(a+2b+3c)-(4a+6b-5c)$ is equivalent to: A. $-4a-8b-2c$B. $-4a-4b+8c$C. $-3a+8b-2c$D. $-3a-4b-2c$E. $-3a-4b+8c$ For a problem like this, we are being asked to subtract the entire expression, $4a + 6b - 5c$, from the entire expression, $a + 2b + 3c$. This means that the negative sign will be negating every term in the expression $4a + 6b - 5c$. So we must put a negative sign in front of each term. $4a$ becomes $-4a$ $6b$ becomes $-6b$ $-5c$ becomes $- -5c$ or $+5c$. Now let us put these pieces together with the first expression. $a - 4a = -3a$ $2b - 6b = -4b$ $3c + 5c = 8c$ Our final expression will be: $-3a - 4b + 8c$ Our final answer is E, $-3a - 4b + 8c$. [Note: many (many!) students put a negative sign only in front of the first term in the parenthesis, which in this case the $4a$. If you had done this, you would have gotten: $a - 4a = -3a$ $2b + 6b = 8b$ $3c - 5c = -2c$. This would have given you answer choice C, $-3a + 8b - 2c$. Again the test-makers know this is a common error and there will always be a bait answer to tempt anyone who makes this kind of mistake.] Operations in the "real world." Hyuk, yuk, yuk. Test Your Knowledge Now that we’ve gone through the tips and tricks of operations questions, it’s time to put your knowledge to the test with more real ACT math problems. 1. Which of the following is an equivalent simplified expression for $2(4x+7)-3(2x-4)$? F. $x+2$G. $2x + 2$H. $2x+26$J. $3x+10$K. $3x+$ 2.Which of the following expressions is equivalent to ${1/2}y^2(6x+2y+12x-2y)$? A. $9xy^2$B. $18xy$C. $3xy^2 + 12x$D. $9xy^2-2y^3$E. $3xy^2+12x-y^3-2y$ 3.$t^2-59t+54-82t^2+60t$ is equivalent to: F. $-26t^2$G. $-26t^6$H. $-81t^4+t^2+54$J. $-81t^2+t+54$K. $-82t^2+t+54$ 4.The expression $-8x^3(7x^6-3x^5)$ is equivalent to: A. $-56x^9+24x^8$B. $-56x^9-24x^8$C. $-56x^18+24x^15$D. $-56^18-24x^15$E. $-32x^4$ Answers: H, A, J, A Answer Explanations: 1. As always, we can solve this question using algebra or using PIN. Let us look at both ways. Method 1: Algebra First, we must distribute out our terms. Only afterwards will we subtract them. Let us take each half of our expression by itself. $2(4x + 7)$ $8x + 14$ $ -3(2x - 4)$ $-6x + 12$ (Note: keep careful track of your negatives here, especially in the second half of our expression.) Now, we can put the two together. $8x + 14 - 6x + 12$ $2x + 26$ We cannot go any further, as we have combined all our like terms. Our final answer is H, $2x + 26$ Method 2: PIN As an alternative to algebra, we can always use plugging in numbers. So let us assign our own value to $x$, which we will call 3. (Why 3? Why not!) This means that we will replace any $x$ in our given equation with a 3. $2(4x + 7) - 3(2x - 4)$ $2(4(3) + 7) - 3(2(3) - 4)$ $2(12 + 7) - 3(6 - 4)$ $2(19) - 3(2)$ $38 - 6$ $32$ Now, let us find the answer choice that matches with our found answer of 32, once we replace the $x$ with 3. As usual, when using PIN, let us start with the middle answer option. $2x + 26$ $2(3) +26$ $6 + 26$ $32$ Success! We found our answer on the first try. But remember- when using PIN, always check your other answer options to make sure there are not repeat correct answers. We can see straightaway that answer choices F and G will be too small, since answer choice H was a match. So let us try answer choice J. $3x + 10$ $3(3) + 10$ $9 + 10$ $19$ This answer choice is too small and we can see just by looking that answer choice K will be too small as well (since they only differ by 1). This means we are safe with our answer choice H, as no others produced a match. Our final answer is H, $2x + 26$. As we saw from earlier in the guide and from the example problem above, we can always use algebra or PIN for our operations problems. Knowing that, we will only go through one method each for the rest of our answer explanations. 2: For this problem, let us do our solve using algebra (again, we could also use PIN, but for the sake of brevity, we are only choosing one method for each problem). We are given the equation: ${1/2}y^2(6x + 2y + 12x - 2y)$ Now, let us first make life easier by combining the like terms in the parenthesis. $(6x + 2y + 12x - 2y)$ $(6x + 12x + 2y - 2y)$ $(18x)$ The $y$ terms cancel one another out, so we are left with only $18x$ in the parenthesis. Now, we must multiply our $18x$ by ${1/2}y^2$. As always, when multiplying, we must multiply first the coefficients and then combine them with the combined variables. So: ${1/2}y^2 * 18x$ $(1/2) * 18 = 9$ $y^2 * x = y^2x$ Put the two together and we have: $9y^2x$ So our final answer is A, $9xy^2$ 3: Because we used algebra last time, let us try our hand at solving this question using PIN. Because we are using our own numbers, we don’t have to worry about whether or not we are matching up the right terms, or if we are combining them incorrectly; we can bypass all the mess and use numbers instead. We have one variable, $t$, so let us say that $t = 2$. (Why 2? As always, why not!) $t^2 - 59t + 54 - 82t^2 + 60t$ $(2)^2 - 59(2) + 54 - 82(2)^2 + 60(t)$ $4 - 8 + 54 - 328 + 120$ $-268$ Now, we must find the answer choice that matches our found answer of 102, once we replace $t$ with 2. Let us start in the middle, with answer choice H. $-81t^4 + t^2 + 54$ $-81(2)^4 + (2)^2 + 54$ $-81(16) + 4 + 54$ $-1296 + 58$ $-1238$ We can see just by looking that answer choice G will be too small as well ($-26 * 16 = -416$), and answer choice F will be too large (-26 * 4 = -104). So let us try answer choice J. $-81t^2 + t + 54$ $-81(2)^2 + 2 + 54$ $-81(4) + 56$ $-324 + 56$ $-268$ Success! And we can also see that the only difference between answer choices J and K are the coefficient in front of $t^2$ (-81 vs. -82), so we know that answer K would produce an incorrect and smaller number than answer choice J. Our final answer is J, $-81t^2 + t + 54$ 4: Because we used PIN last time, let us use algebra for this problem. Because we do not have like terms in the parenthesis, we must distribute out our expression using multiplication. $-8x^3(7x^6 - 3x^5)$ $-8x^3(7x^6) - -8x^3(3x^5)$ And take each piece separately. $-8x^3(7x^6)$ = $-8 * 7 = -56$ and $x^3 * x^6 = x^[3 + 6] = x^9$ (for more on this, look to the section on exponents in our advanced integers guide). So, combined, we have: $-56x^9$ And the other half of our expression will be the same. $- -8x^3(3x^5)$ $8x^3(3x^5)$ = $8 * 3 = 24$ and $x^3 * x^5 = x^[3 + 5] = x^8$ So, combined, we have: $24x^8$ Now our equation looks like this: $-56x^9 + 24x^8$ Our final answer is A, $-56x^9 + 24x^8$ (Take care! The only difference between answer choice A and B is the negative sign. If you weren’t careful with your double negatives, you may have fallen for this bait answer.) Ten thousand gold stars for solving your operations problems! The Take-Aways Though operations problems are easy to get wrong if you’re going too quickly through the test (or trying to solve them in your head), the basic elements are the same as any problem with variables- combine like terms, keep your work organized, and use PIN if you feel overwhelmed (or simply want to double-check your answer). You have a multitude of options for solving ACT algebra questions, so don’t be afraid to use them. What’s Next? Still in the mood for math? Well we've got you covered! First, take a gander at exactly what's tested on the ACT math section in order to get a feel for your strong and weak points. Next, dive right into our ACT math guides for any topic you feel you haven't quite mastered (or just any topic you want to refresh). From circles to ratios, slopes to polygons, we've got your back. Running out of time on the ACT math section? Check out our guide on how to help maximize your avaialable time in order to get your best score possible. Nervous about test day? Ease your mind by taking a look at what to do the night before and the day of the test. Trying for a perfect score? Look no further than our guide to getting a perfect 36 on the ACT math, written by a perfect-scorer. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Math lesson, you'll love our program. Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Basal Ganglia Function and Location

Basal Ganglia Function and Location The basal ganglia are a group of neurons (also called nuclei) located deep within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The basal ganglia consist of the corpus striatum (a major group of basal ganglia nuclei) and related nuclei. The basal ganglia are involved primarily in processing movement-related information. They also process information related to emotions, motivations, and cognitive functions. Basal ganglia dysfunction is associated with a number of disorders that influence movement including Parkinsons disease, Huntington disease, and uncontrolled or slow movement (dystonia). Basal Nuclei Function The basal ganglia and related nuclei are characterized as one of three types of nuclei. Input nuclei receive signals from various sources in the brain. Output nuclei send signals from the basal ganglia to the thalamus. Intrinsic nuclei relay nerve signals and information between the input nuclei and output nuclei. The basal ganglia receive  information from the cerebral cortex and thalamus through input nuclei. After the information has been processed, it is passed along to intrinsic nuclei and sent to output nuclei. From the output nuclei, the information is sent to the thalamus. The thalamus passes the information on to the cerebral cortex. Basal Ganglia Function: Corpus Striatum The corpus striatum is the largest group of basal ganglia nuclei. It consists of the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, and the globus pallidus. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens are input nuclei, while the globus pallidus is considered output nuclei. The corpus striatum uses and stores the neurotransmitter dopamine and is involved in the reward circuit of the brain. Caudate Nucleus: These  C-shaped paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located primarily in the frontal lobe region of the brain. The caudate has a head region that curves and extends forming an elongated body that continues to  taper at its tail. The tail of the caudate ends in the temporal lobe at a limbic system structure known as the amygdala. The caudate nucleus is involved in motor processing and planning. It is also involved in memory storage (unconscious and long-term), associative and procedural learning, inhibitory control, decision making, and planning.Putamen: These  large rounded nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located in the forebrain and along with the caudate nucleus  form the dorsal striatum. The putamen is connected to the caudate nucleus at the  head region of the caudate. The putamen is involved in voluntary and involuntary motor control.Nucleus Accumbens: These  paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located between the caudate nucleus an d putamen. Along with the olfactory tubercle (sensory processing center in the olfactory cortex), the nucleus accumbens forms the ventral region of the striatum. The nucleus accumbens is involved in the brains  reward circuit and behavior mediation. Globus Pallidus: These paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located near the caudate nucleus and putamen. The globus pallidus is divided into internal and external segments and acts as one of the major output nuclei of the basal ganglia. It sends information from basal ganglia nuclei to the thalamus. The internal segments of the pallidus send the majority of output to the thalamus via the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA has an inhibitory effect on motor function. The external segments of the pallidus are intrinsic nuclei, relaying information between other basal ganglia nuclei and internal segments of the pallidus. The globus pallidus is involved in the regulation of voluntary movement. Basal Ganglia Function: Related Nuclei Subthalamic Nucleus: These small paired nuclei are a component of the diencephalon, located just below the thalamus. Subthalamic nuclei receive excitatory inputs from the cerebral cortex and have excitatory connections to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Subthalamic nuclei have both input and output connections to the caudate nucleus, putamen, and substantia nigra. The subthalamic nucleus plays a major role in voluntary and involuntary movement. It is also involved in associative learning and limbic functions. Subthalamic nuclei have connections with the limbic system through connections with the cingulate gyrus and nucleus accumbens.Substantia Nigra: This large mass of nuclei is located in the midbrain and is also a component of the brainstem. The substantia nigra is composed of the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. The pars reticulata segment forms one of the major inhibitory outputs of the basal ganglia and assists in the regulation of eye movements. The pars compact a segment is composed of intrinsic nuclei that relay information between input and output sources. It is involved mainly in motor control and coordination. Pars compacta cells contain pigmented nerve cells that produce dopamine. These neurons of the substantia nigra have connections with the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) supplying the striatum with dopamine. The substantia nigra serves numerous functions including controlling voluntary movement, regulating mood, learning, and activity related to the brains reward circuit. Basal Ganglia Disorders Dysfunction of basal ganglia structures results in several movement disorders. Examples of these disorders include Parkinsons disease, Huntington disease, dystonia (involuntary muscle contractions), Tourette syndrome, and multiple system atrophy (neurodegenerative disorder). Basal ganglia disorders are commonly the result of damage to the deep brain structures of the basal ganglia. This damage may be caused by factors such as head injury, drug overdose, carbon monoxide poisoning, tumors, heavy metal poisoning, stroke, or liver disease. Individuals with basal ganglia dysfunction may exhibit difficulty in walking with uncontrolled or slow movement. They may also exhibit tremors, problems controlling speech, muscle spasms, and increased muscle tone. Treatment is specific to the causation of the disorder. Deep brain stimulation, electrical stimulation of targeted brain areas, has been used in the treatment of Parkinsons disease, dystonia, and Tourette syndrome. Sources Lanciego, Josà © L., et al. â€Å"Functional Neuroanatomy of the Basal Ganglia.† Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Dec. 2012.Parr-Brownlie, Louise C., and John N.J. Reynolds. â€Å"Basal Ganglia.† Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Inc., 19 June 2016.Wichmann, Thomas, and Mahlon R. DeLong. â€Å"Deep-Brain Stimulation for Basal Ganglia Disorders.† Basal Ganglia, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 July 2011.

Corrections Module 6 Online Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Corrections Module 6 Online - Essay Example Before the adoption of the health policies, this article indicates that US court system was reluctant to challenge jail conditions that touched on the health of the prisoners. However, after the case of Estelle v Gamble, courts have taken the initiative to support institutional policies that were challenged by prisoners. Some of the policies that US courts advocated for included segregation of HIV-seropositive individuals in addition to no segregation policies (Harrison and Beck 39). According to the state of Nevada, prisoners were supposed to undergo a mandatory HIV testing. However, in 1990 the Ninth Circuit Court overturned the mandatory policy put in place by the Nevada authority. This article indicates Blucker v Washington, 95c50110, U.S. District Court [ND Ill]) as one of the major case that depicts the way prisoners rights were affected in 1990s. According to this case, an inmate it Illinois prison sued the staff on the ground that as a result of the sexual abuse by the prison gangs he was infected with HIV. However, after 2 trials his case was rejected. Major strategies emulated by the government to punish prisoners involved in infecting other with HIV include incarceration and creation of criminal sanctions. This article is related with the text book in that it depicts the extent to which prisoners and victims were denied their rights. However, the reforms in the US judicial system have significantly addressed their plights. According to this article, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and other religious organisations stipulate that governors of the various US states should reject the Corrections Corporation of America (CCA) proposal to buy and manage all the prisons that are under states authority (Abramsky 18). ACLU argues that by privatizing the US prisons, CCA would only increase it profits while the criminal justice reforms would be compromised. In addition, the article indicates the views of Office of Public Witness that depicts